Second Language Knowledge (Loewen, 2015)

第二章を通して、第二言語習得で培う知識、そしてそれらをどのように発達させていくかについて整理しました。それって現場では当然のこと、という内容のところはあるのですが、自分が語ろうとしていることを理論ベースで語ることができるようにすることは論理的な思考を養う上では非常に大切なことかと思いますし、他者意識も生まれることと思います。何より意識上に顕在化することでincidentalな指導を避けることにつながるものと感じています。

The Nature of Second Language Knowledge(p18~)

Canale and Swain(1980);communicative competence

1)Linguistic competence, which entails knowledge of the L2 morphosyntax, lexis, and phonology.

2)Sociolinguistic competence, which consists of learner’s ability to use the language appropriately in various social contexts.

3)Discourse competence, which is comprised of learner’s knowledge of how to produce coherent and cohesive written and oral language.

4)Strategic competence, which consists of learners’ ability to deal with communication difficulties.

Learners’ L2 cognitive linguistic systems

For language, declarative memory consists of the knowledge that learners are aware of and can describe; in contrast, non-declarative memory is the knowledge that learners use unconsciously when they are communicating in the language. (explicit/implicit knowledge, declarative/procedural knowledge)(p20)

L2 speakers may have considerable explicit L2 knowledge without corresponding levels of implicit knowledge. Moreover, instructed L2 learners often have higher levels of explicit and metalinguistic knowledge than do L1 speakers.(Alderson&Hudson, 2013)(p21)

In terms of cognitive processing, learners need to use attentional resources to retrieve explicit knowledge from memory, with the consequence that using explicit knowledge is cognitively effortful, and the time taken to access explicit knowledge is such that it does not allow for quick and uninterrupted language production(R.Ellis, 2009). By contrast, learners can access implicit knowledge quickly and unconsciously, allowing it to be used for unplanned language production. Although it is argued that implicit knowledge is the primary type of knowledge necessary for spontaneous communication(Ur, 2011), it is also acknowledged that language production typically utilizes a combination of implicit and explicit knowledge(Bialystok, 1982; R. Ellis, 2009).(p21)

Skill Acquisition Theory, a general psychological theory of learning, is another theory that deals with the mental representations of knowledge(DeKeyser, 2007c; Segalowitz, 2003).(p21)

...one difference between the constructs of explicit and implicit knowledge on the other hand, and declarative and procedural knowledge on the other pertains to the relationship that is proposed to exist between the two respective types of knowledge. Explicit and implicit knowledge are often viewed as modular, meaning that they are stored in two different places in the brain and do not intermingle(R. Ellis, 2009). In contrast, declarative knowledge being able to be proceduralized or automatized through practice(DeKeyser, 2007c).

...grammar and grammatical rules: rule-learning

...vocabulary: idem-learning

Both rule-learning and item-learning can result in explicit knowledge that learners are consciously aware of and can verbalize. It is also possible for both types of learning to result in implicit and procedural knowledge that individuals can draw on when communicating without consciously thinking about that knowledge.(p22)

Vocabulary acquisition relies heavily on item-learning as learners are involved in making explicit form-meaning connections between the meaning of the word and its phonological or orthographic form. Thus, much knowledge of vocabulary may be considered to be explicit(Sonbul & Schmitt, 2012).

There are also aspects of vocabulary knowledge that may be implicit. For example, knowledge of the contexts in which words are likely to occur may be implicit.(p23)

The Acquisition of L2 Knowledge(p24~)

...implicit learning, which occurs without intention or awareness, results in implicit knowledge, while in contrast, explicit learning, which is generally intentional and overt, results in explicit knowledge(Krashen, 2003; Macaro&Masterman, 2006;Rebuschat, 2013).(p24)

However, a problem arises when teachers and learners assume that explicit knowledge is going to allow them to use the L2 easily for communication.

As has been discussed, the ability to produce language relatively easily for communicative purposes draws heavily on implicit knowledge.

Implicit knowledge builds up gradually as learners’ cognitive systems register the patterns that are present in the input.

...the development of implicit knowledge takes large amount of practice(DeKeyser, 2007b), and providing learners with numerous opportunities to practice using the L2 can be difficult, particularly with large classes and a full curriculum.(p25)

Another problem with the development of implicit knowledge is that learners might not feel as though they are learning anything because they cannot consciously verbalize what they have learned(Gatbonton&Segalowitz, 2005).

Learners need to demonstrate the ability to produce language relatively spontaneously in a context that focuses primarily on the meaning of the language and not the grammatical rules, something that is again challenging to make happen in many instructional contexts.

Because of these issues, it is possible that L2 learners might be better served by a combination of implicit and explicit instruction(p26).

...The implication is that the teaching of explicit language rules will not, by itself, result in students who are able to communicate easily or well in the language. If a primary goal of L2 instruction remains the development of implicit knowledge in order for learners to be able to use the L2 fluently in spontaneous communication, then it is incumbent upon ISLA researchers to consider how best to achieve that goal.(p26)

Interface hypothesis

1)noninterface

2)weak interface

3)strong interface

The Measurement of L2 Knowledge

Empirical Evidence

The Relationship between Instruction and Knowledge

—-Implicit knowledge resulting from explicit instruction(p32)

Because explicit instruction is easier to provide in the classroom than implicit instruction, the ideal situation would be if explicit instruction was effective for the acquisition of both explicit and implicit L2 knowledge.

Spada and Tomita(2010)○

Sonbul and Shimitt(2012)×

Ellis, Loewen, and Erlam(2006)

-provided either explicit and implicit corrective feedback on learners’ incorrect use of past tense during two 30-minute communicative tasks.

—-Oral imitation test, in which learners heard both grammatical and ungrammatical English sentences and had to repeat the sentences in correct English. ...implicit knowledge

—-untimed grammaticality judgement test and a metalinguistic knowledge test ...explicit knowledge

→RESULTS

Explicit corrective feedback led to gains in accuracy scores on measures of both implicit and explicit knowledge on delayed post tests.

—-explicit instruction could result in the development of implicit knowledge.(p33)

—-Implicit knowledge resulting from implicit instruction

Rebuschat and WIlliams(2012)...some learners were able to use the syntax rules to make accurate grammaticality judgements about sentences that had not been included in the treatment sessions.

...implicit learning may be possible for adult L2 learners; however, such learning may need to be accompanied by conscious knowledge.

Li(2010)...although explicit feedback was found to be more beneficial in the short term, implicit feedback was more effective long term. Li suggests that these different effects for the two types of feedback may be the result of implicit feedback contributing to implicit knowledge, which takes longer to develop but is more durable. Thus, the effects of implicit instruction would not necessarily be seen immediately after its provision.

...Explicit instruction may benefit the development  of both types of knowledge, while implicit instruction also appears to be effective.(p34)